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Activated carbons from co-carbonization of waste truck tires and spent tea leaves
(Elsevier, 2021) Guclu, Cansu; Alper, Koray; Erdem, Murat; Tekin, Kubilay; Karagoz, Selhan
This study reports the co-carbonization of waste truck tires (WTT) and spent tea leaves (STL) at different blend ratios using chemical activating reagents (KOH and ZnCl2) carried out at 800 C. The highest BET surface area from blends was 527.24 m2/g, obtained using ZnCl2 activation at a blend ratio of 1:3 (WTT/STL). Activated carbons yields in the blends were the highest at a blend ratio of 3:1 (WTT/STL) for both chemical activations. They were 24.37 wt% for KOH activation and 41.59 wt% for ZnCl2 activation. ZnCl2 activation produced higher carbon and lower oxygen content than those using KOH activation. Regardless of the type of feed, the oxygen removal efficiency of ZnCl2 was higher than that of KOH under identical conditions. Among all the activated carbons produced, the BET surface area of the activated carbons obtained from the carbonization of STL alone was highest for both activations. The BET surface area of the activated carbons produced in this study was comparable to that of activated carbons produced commercially.
Activated carbons from co-carbonization of waste truck tires and spent tea leaves (vol 21, 100410, 2021)
(Elsevier, 2021) Guclu, Cansu; Alper, Koray; Erdem, Murat; Tekin, Kubilay; Karagoz, Selhan
[No abstract available]
Adsorption of Pb(II) and Cd(II) Ions Onto Dye-Attached Sawdust
(Wiley, 2016) Tekin, Kubilay; Akalin, Mehmet K.; Uzun, Lokman; Karagoz, Selhan; Bektas, Sema; Denizli, Adil
Sawdust from Pinus sylvestris was modified with Cibacron Blue F3GA. The dye was attached to the sawdust through a chemical reaction under alkaline conditions. The modified sawdust was then used to evaluate the adsorption of Pb(II) and Cd(II) ions by investigating the effects adsorption time, pH and metal ion concentration. Adsorption rates were rapid and reached equilibrium after 15min. The Langmuir isotherm was better fitted than the Freundlich isotherm for both metal ions. The maximum capacities of the monolayer adsorption were 56 mu mol/g for Pb(II) and 72 mu mol/g for Cd(II). Adsorption-desorption studies showed that Cibacron Blue F3GA-attached sawdust from P. sylvestris can be used repeatedly to adsorb heavy metal ions without significant loss of adsorptive capacity.
Alkali-catalyzed hydrothermal treatment of sawdust for production of a potential feedstock for catalytic gasification
(Elsevier Sci Ltd, 2018) Imai, Akihisa; Hardi, Flabianus; Lundqvist, Petter; Furusjo, Erik; Kirtania, Kawnish; Karagoz, Selhan; Tekin, Kubilay
This study investigates the effects of reaction temperature and catalyst loading on product yields and fuel properties of produced slurry during the alkali catalyzed hydrothermal treatment (HTT) of pine sawdust. The yield of the liquid fraction, or the aqueous product (AP), at process temperatures of 180-260 degrees C obtained after solid/liquid separation of the slurry ranged from 11.1 to 34.3 wt% on a dry, ash free basis. The fuel quality of the produced slurry, such as the elemental composition and the higher heating value (HHV), was mainly affected by the catalyst loading. An increase in the catalyst loading caused the ash content to increase. Although the increase in temperature leads to a higher liquid fraction in the slurry making it more homogeneous, its contribution to the elemental composition of the whole slurry was limited. HHV of the produced slurry ranged from 12.0 to 16.4 MJ/kg. These values are comparable to that of black liquor (BL), which has previously been shown to be a promising feedstock for gasification in a pilot scale entrained flow gasifier. These results imply the possibility of a fuel switch from BL to the HTT slurry for entrained flow gasification though its gasification reactivity and conversion characteristics must be investigated further.
Cellulose-derived carbon spheres produced under supercritical ethanol conditions
(Springer, 2016) Tekin, Kubilay; Pileidis, Filoklis D.; Akalin, Mehmet K.; Karagoz, Selhan
This study investigates the production of spherical carbons from cellulose under sub- and supercritical ethanol conditions with and without the addition of a potassium hydroxide (KOH) catalyst. Different temperatures (200 and 280 A degrees C), residence times (0.5, 1, 2, and 4 h), and KOH concentrations (5, 10, and 20 wt% of cellulose) were used for the carbonization process. Carbon spheres could only be obtained under supercritical ethanol conditions (at 280 A degrees C and 9.5 MPa). Supercritical ethanol decreases the oxygen content by a significant amount, thereby increasing the heating value. Morphological studies show that the carbons are essentially spherical of different sizes depending on the operating conditions (such as the presence of a catalyst and time). For the first time, we showed that spherical carbons can be obtained under supercritical ethanol conditions. This is a useful result as, for instance, ethanol can be produced from cellulose, and this opens the possibility for the development of a green and simple procedure to synthesize carbon spheres that may have many different applications including gas separation, catalysis, and energy storage.
Co-hydrothermal Liquefaction of Lignocellulosic Biomass with Kukersite Oil Shale
(Amer Chemical Soc, 2019) Akalin, Ece; Kim, Young-Min; Alper, Koray; Oja, Vahur; Tekin, Kubilay; Durukan, Ilknur; Siddiqui, Muhammad Zain
The co-hydrothermal liquefaction of black pine wood (BPW) with Kukersite oil shale (KOS) at different blend ratios of BPW/KOS (1:1, 1:2, and 2:1) was conducted at 300 degrees C for 30 min. No synergistic effects on oil yields from the co-hydrothermal processing have been observed. However, when the methanol was substituted with hot compressed water as the solvent, positive synergistic effects on the oil yields were observed for all blend ratios, but the heating values of the oils from hydrothermal processing were higher than those from supercritical methanol processing under identical conditions. Co-hydrothermal liquefaction of BPW with KOS produced oils with less oxygen than those from co-supercritical methanol processing of BPW with KOS under identical conditions. The highest heating value from co-processing was 30.22 MJ/kg, which was obtained from the co-hydrothermal liquefaction of BPW with KOS at a blend ratio of 1:2. Oils from the co-hydrothermal liquefaction of BPW with KOS contained phenols, acids, ketones, and aldehydes. Guaiacol was the primary compound detected in the oils from co-hydrothermal processing. The relative yield of this compound was highest at a blend ratio of 1:2 (BPW/KOS). The prominent compounds in oils from the co-supercritical methanol processing were esters and phenols.
Deconstruction of lignocellulosic biomass with hydrated cerium (III) chloride in water and ethanol
(Elsevier Science Bv, 2017) Akalin, Mehmet K.; Das, Parthapratim; Alper, Koray; Tekin, Kubilay; Ragauskas, Arthur J.; Karagoz, Selhan
Lignocellulosic biomass was decomposed to produce crude bio-oil in water and ethanol using hydrated cerium (III) chloride as a catalyst. Use of the catalyst affected not only the yield of crude bio-oil but also the composition of bio-crude for both water and ethanol. The catalyst had a detrimental effect on the crude bio-oil yields obtained from water processing for all runs. However, in ethanol, use of the catalyst improved the crude bio-oil yields in all tested runs. The solid residue yields decreased with the catalyst use in the runs with water but increased in all studies with ethanol, except those with the shortest tested residence time of 10 min. The highest crude bio-oil yield of 48.2 wt% was obtained at 300 degrees C using 5 mmol of hydrated cerium (III) chloride at a residence time of 90 min in ethanol. The heating values of the crude bio-oils increased with the catalyst use for both water and ethanol processing. The highest heating value of 33.3 MJ kg(-1) was obtained with hydrated cerium (III) chloride at 300 degrees C and a residence time of 120 min.
Effect of a water-tolerant Lewis acid catalyst on the yields and properties of hydrochars from hydrothermal carbonization of walnut wood
(Springer, 2023) Ercan, Betul; Ajagbe, Yusuf O.; Ucar, Suat; Tekin, Kubilay; Karagoz, Selhan
The hydrothermal carbonization of walnut wood chips was conducted at 200-250 & DEG;C for 1-8 h. Increasing the hydrothermal carbonization temperature or the residence time decreased the volatile products and increased the fixed carbon content of the hydrochars. The hydrochars produced from the non-catalytic experiments at 250 & DEG;C for 6 and 8 h were in the lignite class. The lowest O/C and H/C atomic ratios were obtained after carbonization at 250 & DEG;C for 8 h. The catalytic hydrothermal carbonization experiments were carried out in the absence and presence of InCl3 using 1, 2, and 4 mmol of InCl3 at 200, 225, and 250 & DEG;C for 4 h. The highest heating value of hydrochar from the catalytic experiment was 24.73 MJ/kg and was obtained at 250 & DEG;C for 4 h using 1 mmol InCl3. Process water reuse resulted in increased heating values of the hydrochars in both the non-catalytic and catalytic experiments. The use of InCl3 promoted the coalification degree of the hydrochars. These results demonstrate that InCl3 is a suitable catalyst for producing hydrochars via the hydrothermal carbonization of walnut wood chips, which can be used as a solid biofuel.
Effect of sodium perborate monohydrate concentrations on product distributions from the hydrothermal liquefaction of Scotch pine wood
(Elsevier Science Bv, 2013) Tekin, Kubilay; Karagoz, Selhan; Bektas, Sema
The hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass was carried out using sodium perborate monohydrate (NaBO3 center dot H2O) at 250,300 and 350 degrees C. The effects of temperature and additive concentrations on the product distributions were investigated. NaBO3 center dot H2O was found to be very effective for the hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass at 300 and 350 degrees C. The use of NaBO3 center dot H2O in the liquefaction of woody biomass increased the yields of bio-oils and decreased the solid residue yields at 300 and 350 degrees C. All concentrations of NaBO3 center dot H2O showed high catalytic performance at 300 and 350 degrees C. The identified compounds in bio-oils (light bio-oils and heavy bio-oils) were mostly oxygenated hydrocarbons for both the thermal and NaBO3 center dot H2O runs. Furfural, 5-methyl furfural, and 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural were only observed in the thermal run. Most of the identified compounds in the light bio-oils obtained from the thermal and NaBO3 center dot H2O runs were phenolic compounds. The highest heating value of the resultant heavy bio-oils was approximately 32 MJ/kg, which was obtained from the hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass at 350 degrees C with NaBO3 center dot H2O. (C) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Effects of hydrothermal carbonization on products from fast pyrolysis of cellulose
(Elsevier Sci Ltd, 2021) Guducu, Isa; Alper, Koray; Evcil, Tolgahan; Tekin, Kubilay; Ohtani, Hajime; Karago, Selhan
In the first step of this study, the hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) of cellulose was performed at 225 and 250 degrees C for 4, 8 and 12 h. The effect of temperature and residence time on hydrochar (HC) yields and characteristics was investigated, and the highest hydrochar yield had a heating value of 21.06 MJ/kg. In the second step, cellulose and hydrochar-derived cellulose was subjected to fast online pyrolysis at 500, 600 and 700 degrees C, using a pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry system. The HTC process significantly affected the pyrolysis products. The major decomposition product resulting from the fast pyrolysis of cellulose was levoglucosan, but at all tested temperatures, 2-methylfuran was the major product from hydrochars. Increasing the pyrolysis temperature caused a decrease in the relative yield of 2-methylfuran. Another prominent compound observed in pyrolyzates was 2,5-dimethylfuran. The relative yields of these two compounds decreased when the residence time of the HTC process was increased. The highest 2-methylfuran selectivity was 67.4%, while the highest 2,5-dimethylfuran selectivity among the furanic compounds was 24.0%. This study demonstrated that, by combining HTC and pyrolysis processes, fine chemicals can be produced from cellulose.
The effects of water tolerant Lewis acids on the hydrothermal liquefaction of lignocellulosic biomass
(Elsevier Sci Ltd, 2016) Tekin, Kubilay; Akalin, M. Kuddusi; Karagoz, Selhan
The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of water tolerant Lewis acids (i.e., In(OTf)(3), Yb(OTf)(3) and InCl3) on bio-oil and solid residue yields. For this purpose, poplar wood was liquefied at 300 degrees C with a residence time of 10 min without and with, water tolerant Lewis acids in various concentrations from 0.5 to 10 wt% under hydrothermal conditions. The use of water tolerant Lewis acids had negative effects on bio-oil yields. The bio-oil from the run without a catalyst had a value of 17.50 wt% at 300 degrees C, 10 min. The highest bio-oil yields under identical conditions were the following: 14.27 wt%, 1337 wt% and 12.42 wt for Yb(OTf)(3) (with a concentration of 0.5 wt% of the raw material), In(OTf)(3) and InCl3 (with concentrations of 1 wt% of the raw material). The concentrations of catalysts used in the experiments had significant effects on both bio-oil and solid residue yields. An increase of catalyst concentrations resulted in a decrease in bio-oil yields. The catalysts changed neither the molecular nor the elemental compositions of bio-oils and solid residues significantly. The prominent compounds in bio-oils from all runs including the run without a catalyst were phenol, 2,6-dimethoxyphenol; and 2-methoxyphenol. (C) 2015 Energy Institute. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Ethanol: A Promising Green Solvent for the Deconstruction of Lignocellulose
(Wiley-V C H Verlag Gmbh, 2018) Tekin, Kubilay; Hao, Naijia; Karagoz, Selhan; Ragauskas, Arthur J.
Growing energy demand, environmental impact, energy security issues, and rural economic development have encouraged the development of sustainable renewable fuels. Nonfood lignocellulosic biomass is a suitable source for sustainable energy because the biomass feedstocks are low cost, abundant, and carbon neutral. Recent thermochemical conversion studies are frequently directed at converting biomass into high-quality liquid fuel precursors or chemicals in a single step. Supercritical ethanol has been selected as a promising solvent medium to deconstruct lignocellulosic biomass because ethanol has extraordinary solubility towards lignocellulosic biomass and can be resourced from cellulosic ethanol facilities. This review provides a critical insight into both catalytic and noncatalytic strategies of lignocellulose deconstruction. In this context, the supercritical ethanol deconstruction pathways are thoroughly reviewed; GC-MS, 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy, and elemental analysis strategies towards liquid biomass deconstruction products are also critically presented. This review aims to provide readers a broad and accurate roadmap of novel biomass to biofuel conversion techniques.
Experimental design for extraction of bio-oils from flax seeds under supercritical ethanol conditions
(Springer, 2016) Tekin, Kubilay; Akalin, Mehmet K.; Karagoz, Selhan
A central composite design was applied to the extraction of bio-oils from flax seeds under supercritical ethanol (Sc-EtOH) conditions. The effects of three factors (temperature, time, and biomass concentration) on bio-oil and biomass conversion yields were examined. Extraction temperature was statistically found to be the most significant factor which affected both bio-oil yield and biomass conversion. The predicted results matched the experimental results with the following coefficient of determination: (R (2)) 0.95 for bio-oil yield and 0.92 for biomass conversion yield. The composition of bio-oils consisted mainly of fatty acid ester derivatives, and other oxygenated hydrocarbons. Based on the relative concentrations of the compounds, the major compound was ethyl oleate.
Hydrothermal and supercritical ethanol processing of woody biomass with a high-silica zeolite catalyst
(Springer Heidelberg, 2019) Alper, Koray; Tekin, Kubilay; Karagoz, Selhan
The effects of high-silica ZSM-5 on the yields, as well as compositions, of bio-oil and solid residue obtained from oak wood sawdust were investigated. The catalyst, in concentrations from 5 to 40 wt% of the raw lignocellulose material, was tested in hydrothermal (HT) and supercritical ethanol (SCE) media. The highest bio-oil yields were 11.0 and 32.4 wt% for HT and SCE processing, respectively, and were obtained by using 20 wt% ZSM-5. After the noncatalytic and catalytic HT processing and noncatalytic SCE processing of lignocellulose, the major products were phenols, whereas esters were the major products in the bio-oils obtained from the catalytic SCE processing of oak wood sawdust. The use of ZSM-5 increased the relative contents of the ester compounds in the bio-oils from the SCE processing, while the catalyst did not significantly change the composition of the bio-oils produced from the HT processing of oak wood sawdust. The highest heating values of the bio-oils were 27.11 and 25.65 MJ kg(-1) for HT and SCE processing, respectively, and were obtained from the noncatalytic runs. The amount of recovered carbon in the bio-oils from the catalytic runs was higher than that from the noncatalytic runs for both HT and SCE processing. The carbon content of the solid residues for both HT and SCE processing decreased with the use of a catalyst. An increase in the catalyst concentration led to a decrease in the carbon content of the solid residues in SCE and HT processing.
Hydrothermal carbonization of lignocellulosic biomass and effects of combined Lewis and Bronsted acid catalysts
(Elsevier Sci Ltd, 2020) Evcil, Tolgahan; Simsir, Hamza; Ucar, Suat; Tekin, Kubilay; Karagoz, Selhan
This study is the first to investigate the effect of combined Lewis and Bronsted acid catalysts on the hydrothermal carbonization of fir wood samples; here, hydrothermal carbonization of fir wood-with and without catalyst-was performed. In non-catalytic runs, the effects of temperature and residence time on hydrochar yields were investigated; temperature significantly affected hydrochar yields, whereas residence time had very little effect. A gradual increase in temperature resulted in a decrease in hydrochar yields while increasing the carbon content of hydrochars. At all tested temperatures, the use of a catalyst led to a decrease in hydrochar yields. The highest heating value of 29.12 MJ kg(-1) was obtained at the highest temperature (275 degrees C) and the longest residence time (24 h). The use of catalysts slightly decreased the heating values. The hydrochars were mainly in the class of lignite coal; hydrochar obtained at 275 degrees C and a residence time of 12 h-either with or without catalysts-was classified as bituminous coal. Irregular carbon sphere formation was observed at all temperatures tested in the catalytic runs; however, no carbon spheres were observed in the non-catalytic runs. XRD patterns of hydrochars from the non-catalytic runs were similar for temperatures of 225, 250 and 275 degrees C; the peak observed at 2 theta of 22 degrees broadened after HTC processing. In the catalytic runs, two new peaks at 2 theta of 38 degrees and 49 degrees were observed, in addition to broadened peaks (2 theta = 22 degrees). The use of catalysts led to the formation of the secondary char.
Hydrothermal Conversion of Russian Olive Seeds into Crude Bio-oil Using a CaO Catalyst Derived from Waste Mussel Shells
(Amer Chemical Soc, 2015) Tekin, Kubilay
Hydrothermal conversion studies were performed (bio-oil obtained under hydrothermal conditions) using Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia L.) seeds as a waste biomass at different temperatures and different residence times. After the conditions where the highest yield of bio-oil was found, a mussel shell catalyst (which is a source of calcium oxide when calcined at T > 950 degrees C) was applied for the first time for the hydrothermal conversion of biomass. To compare and evaluate the catalytic performance of the catalyst, the effects of the catalyst on product distributions, elemental contents, and high heating values of products and bio-oil compositions were investigated. The use of the catalyst significantly increased the bio-oil and conversion yields. The bio-oils were analyzed by a gas chromatograph mass spectrometer (GC-MS). Characterization studies of the catalyst were completed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area analysis, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. This study exclusively focuses on the bio-oil and solid residue yield to demonstrate the effects of the catalyst derived from a waste biomass. Suggestions for further studies are provided at the end of the Conclusion.
Hydrothermal conversion of woody biomass with disodium octaborate tetrahydrate and boric acid
(Elsevier, 2013) Tekin, Kubilay; Karagoz, Selhan; Bektas, Sema
In this study, Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris L) was used as a woody biomass in the form of sawdust. Hydrothermal conversion of the biomass was carried out in the absence and presence of disodium octaborate tetrahydrate and boric acid at the temperatures of 250, 300 and 350 degrees C. The effects of temperature and catalysts on the product distributions and bio-oil compositions were investigated. The highest total bio-oil yield obtained at 300 degrees C with disodium octaborate tetrahydrate was 34.9 wt%, whereas the total bio-oil yields from the non-catalytic run and the run with H3BO3 at 300 degrees C were 24.6 wt% and 19.1 wt%, respectively. Although the composition of bio-oils was similar in all runs, some compounds such as furfural and furfural derivatives were not observed in the light and heavy bio-oils produced from the non-catalytic run and the run with disodium octaborate tetrahydrate at 300 degrees C. The light bio-oils from all runs contained mainly oxygenated hydrocarbons. The major compounds in HBOs were the following: 4-methyl-3-penten-2-one and 4-hydroxy-4-methyl-2-pentanone for disodium octaborate tetrahydrate, 4-hydroxy-4-methyl-2-pentanone and (Z,Z)-9,12-octadecadienoic acid for the non-catalytic run and (Z,Z)-9,12-octadecadienoic acid for the run with boric acid. The maximum heating values for the LBO and HBO were estimated to be about 25 and 28 MJ/kg, respectively, and they were obtained with disodium octaborate tetrahydrate. SEM analysis of the bio-char obtained from the non-catalytic run at 250 degrees C showed a semi-char formation. An increase in temperature from 250 to 300 degrees C led to the formation of regular channels on the surface of the bio-char. These open channels closed when the temperature was increased from 300 to 350 degrees C. (C) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Hydrothermal liquefaction of beech wood using a natural calcium borate mineral
(Elsevier Science Bv, 2012) Tekin, Kubilay; Karagoz, Selhan; Bektas, Sema
This study reports the effects of a natural calcium borate mineral, colemanite, on the hydrothermal liquefaction of beech wood biomass. Hydrothermal liquefaction experiments were performed at 250, 300 and 350 degrees C with and without colemanite. The highest light bio-oil yield (11.1 wt%) and the highest heavy bio-oil yield (29.8 wt%) were obtained at 300 degrees C with colemanite. The total bio-oil yields were 22 wt% and 41 wt% ca. at 300 degrees C without and with colemanite, respectively. The highest heating values were obtained from the hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass using colemanite at 350 degrees C: 23.81 MJ/kg for LBO and 27.53 MJ/kg for HBO. Most of the identified compounds in the light bio-oils were phenols. The light bio-oil obtained without the catalyst at 300 degrees C contained furfurals. However, these compounds were not observed in the run with colemanite at the same temperature. The heavy bio-oils from the runs both without and with colemanite are composed of phenols, aldehydes, ketones, acids, and benzene derivatives. 4-Methyl-3-penten-2-one was the major compound in the heavy bio-oils produced in the catalytic runs. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Hydrothermal liquefaction of cornelian cherry stones for bio-oil production
(Elsevier Sci Ltd, 2012) Akalin, Mehmet K.; Tekin, Kubilay; Karagoz, Selhan
Hydrothermal liquefaction of cornelian cherry stones, fruit processing wastes, was performed at 200, 250 and 300 degrees C with residence times of 0, 15, and 30 min. The highest total bio-oil yield was obtained at both 250 and 300 degrees C for the shortest residence time (0 min) and found to be 28 wt.%. ca. The solid residue yields were reduced as both the hydrothermal liquefaction temperature and the holding time was increased. The highest heating values of LBO and HBO were estimated to be 23.86 and 28.35 Mj kg(-1), respectively. The major compounds identified in the LBOs were furfurals, phenols, acetic acid and vanillin. The major components of the HBOs contained furfurals, phenols and fatty acids. Among major identified compounds in the HBOs, the relative concentration of Linoleic acid was the highest both at 250 and 300 degrees C. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Lignocellulosic Biomass Using Potassium Fluoride-Doped Alumina
(Amer Chemical Soc, 2019) Alper, Koray; Tekin, Kubilay; Karagoz, Selhan
Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) of spruce wood was performed without and with the use of a potassium fluoride-doped alumina catalyst (KF/Al2O3) in a bench-top reactor. HTL runs were performed at 250, 300, and 350 degrees C with residence times of 15, 30, and 60 min. The effects of the catalyst at different catalyst loadings (in concentrations from 10 to 40 wt % of the lignocellulosic biomass) on the bio-oil and solid residue yields as well as their properties were investigated. The use of the catalyst increased the bio-oil yields over twofold and reduced char yields. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis revealed that the bio-oil from the noncatalytic and catalytic runs consisted of aldehydes, ketones, phenols, acids, and esters. Among these components, phenolic compounds were dominant in both the noncatalytic and catalytic runs. The relative yields of phenolic compounds increased with catalyst use. The highest heating value was estimated to be approximately 29 MJ/kg. The boiling point distributions of the bio-oils from both runs revealed that the total naphtha fraction (light and heavy) was comparable to that of crude oil.

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